What Are the 4 Major Phyla of Animal Like Protists

What Are the 4 Major Phyla of Animal Like Protists

Eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, plants nor fungi

Protist Temporal range: Paleoproterozoic [a] – Nowadays Pha. Proterozoic Archean Had'n
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Groups included
Supergroups [1] and typical phyla Archaeplastida (in part) Rhodophyta (red algae) Glaucophyta SAR Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms, oomycetes, ...) Alveolata Apicomplexa Ciliophora Dinoflagellata Rhizaria Cercozoa Foraminifera Radiolaria Excavata Euglenozoa Percolozoa Metamonada Amoebozoa Hacrobia Hemimastigophora Apusozoa Opisthokonta (in part) Choanozoa Many others; classification varies
Cladistically included simply traditionally excluded taxa
Animalia Fungi Plantae

A protist () is any eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells contain a cell nucleus) that is not an animate being, found, or fungus. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the terminal eukaryotic common antecedent), ^[2] the exclusion of other eukaryotes means that protists exercise non grade a natural group, or clade. ^[a] Therefore, some protists may be more than closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists; nonetheless, like the groups algae , invertebrates , and protozoans , the biological category protist is used for convenience. Others allocate any unicellular eukaryotic microorganism equally a protist. ^[three] The report of protists is termed protistology. ^[4]

History [ edit ]

The nomenclature of a third kingdom separate from animals and plants was showtime proposed past John Hogg in 1860 equally the kingdom Protoctista; in 1866 Ernst Haeckel also proposed a third kingdom Protista as "the kingdom of archaic forms". ^[5] Originally these also included prokaryotes, but with time^{[ when? ]} these were removed to a 4th kingdom Monera. ^[b]

In the popular v-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, Protista was defined as eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which class no tissues", and the 5th kingdom Fungi was established. ^{[6] [7] [c]} In the five-kingdom system of Lynn Margulis, the term protist is reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more than inclusive kingdom Protoctista (or protoctists) included sure large multicellular eukaryotes, such as kelp, red algae, and slime molds. ^[10] Some apply the term protist interchangeably with Margulis's protoctist, to cover both single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including those that class specialized tissues but exercise not fit into any of the other traditional kingdoms. ^[xi]

Clarification [ edit ]

Besides their relatively elementary levels of organization, protists do not necessarily take much in common. ^[12] When used, the term "protists" is now considered to mean a paraphyletic assemblage of similar-appearing simply diverse taxa (biological groups); these taxa practise non accept an exclusive mutual antecedent across being composed of eukaryotes, and accept dissimilar life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures. ^{[thirteen] [xiv]}

Examples of protists include: ^[15]

• Amoebas (including nucleariids and Foraminifera);
• choanaflagellates; ciliates;
• Diatoms;
• Dinoflagellates;
• Giardia ;
• Plasmodium (which causes malaria);
• Oomycetes (including Phytophthora , the cause of the Great Famine of Ireland); and
• slime molds.

These examples are unicellular, although oomycetes can join to form filaments, and slime molds can aggregate into a tissue-like mass.

In cladistic systems (classifications based on common ancestry), in that location are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, equally both terms refer to a paraphyletic grouping that spans the unabridged eukaryotic branch of the tree of life. In cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are by and large distributed among various supergroups: examples include the

• SAR supergroup (of stramenopiles or heterokonts, alveolates, and Rhizaria);
• Archaeplastida (or Plantae sensu lato );
• Excavata (which is generally unicellular flagellates); and
• Opisthokonta (which commonly includes unicellular flagellates, but also animals and fungi).

"Protista", "Protoctista", and "Protozoa" are therefore considered obsolete. However, the term "protist" continues to be used informally every bit a catch-all term for eukaryotic organisms that are non inside other traditional kingdoms. For instance, the discussion "protist pathogen" may be used to announce whatsoever disease-causing organism that is not plant, animate being, fungal, prokaryotic, viral, or subviral. ^[xvi]

Subdivisions [ edit ]

The term Protista was outset used past Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms such as: ^[5]

Protozoa

Protozoans are unicellular "beast-like" (heterotrophic, and sometimes parasitic) organisms that are further sub-divided based on characteristics such as motion, such as the (flagellated) Flagellata, the (ciliated) Ciliophora, the (phagocytic) amoeba, and the (spore-forming) Sporozoa.

Protophyta

Protophyta are "found-like" (autotrophic) organisms that are composed mostly of unicellular algae. The dinoflagellates, diatoms and Euglena-like flagellates are photosynthetic protists.

Mold

Molds generally refer to fungi; but slime molds and h2o molds are "fungus-like" (saprophytic) protists, although some are pathogens. Two dissever types of slime molds exist, the cellular and acellular forms.

Some protists, sometimes chosen ambiregnal protists, have been considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi (e.k., slime molds and flagellated algae), and names for these have been published under either or both of the ICN and the ICZN . ^{[17] [eighteen]} Conflicts, such as these – for case the dual-nomenclature of Euglenids and Dinobryons, which are mixotrophic – is an example of why the kingdom Protista was adopted.

These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness amidst organisms). Molecular analyses in modern taxonomy have been used to redistribute onetime members of this grouping into diverse and sometimes distantly related phyla. For instance, the h2o molds are at present considered to be closely related to photosynthetic organisms such as Brown algae and Diatoms, the slime molds are grouped mainly under Amoebozoa, and the Amoebozoa itself includes merely a subset of the "Amoeba" group, and significant number of erstwhile "Amoeboid" genera are distributed among Rhizarians and other Phyla.

Yet, the older terms are yet used as informal names to draw the morphology and ecology of diverse protists. For example, the term protozoa is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that do not grade filaments.

Classification [ edit ]

Historical classifications [ edit ]

Amongst the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were most ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera (e.g., Vorticella, Chaos, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus ) ^{[nineteen] [20]} were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. Yard. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin. ^[21] The outset groups used to allocate microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria. ^[22] In 1818, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the give-and-take Protozoa to refer to organisms such equally ciliates and corals. ^{[23] [5]} After the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include only animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae. ^[24] The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was starting time proposed in the early 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as archaic unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "fourth kingdom of nature", in improver to the and so-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals. ^{[25] [five]} The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 past Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), divers as a "kingdom of primitive forms". ^{[26] [27]}

In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg'south label, arguing that Haeckel's term Protista included anucleated microbes such equally bacteria, which the term "Protoctista" (literally pregnant "commencement established beings") did not. In contrast, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such every bit diatoms, green algae and fungi. ^[28] This classification was the basis for Whittaker's subsequently definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista every bit the iv kingdoms of life. ^[eight] The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the separate kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a grouping of eukaryotic microorganisms. ^[6] These five kingdoms remained the accepted classification until the evolution of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, when it became apparent that neither protists nor monera were single groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups). ^[29]

Modern classifications [ edit ]

Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes

Systematists today do not treat Protista as a formal taxon, just the term "protist" is all the same unremarkably used for convenience in ii means. ^[xxx] The most pop gimmicky definition is a phylogenetic one, that identifies a paraphyletic group: ^[31] a protist is any eukaryote that is not an animal, (state) establish, or (true) mucus; this definition ^[32] excludes many unicellular groups, similar the Microsporidia (fungi), many Chytridiomycetes (fungi), and yeasts (fungi), and also a non-unicellular group included in Protista in the past, the Myxozoa (animal). ^[33] Some systematists^{[ who? ]} judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and apply Protista in this sense equally a formal taxon (as institute in some secondary textbooks, for pedagogical purpose).^{[ commendation needed ]}

The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular, ^[30] that either be as independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, do not show differentiation into tissues (but vegetative cell differentiation may occur restricted to sexual reproduction, alternate vegetative morphology, and quiescent or resistant stages, such as cysts); ^[34] this definition excludes many brown, multicellular ruby-red and green algae, which may take tissues.

The taxonomy of protists is still changing. Newer classifications attempt to present monophyletic groups based on morphological (especially ultrastructural), ^{[35] [36] [37]} biochemical (chemotaxonomy) ^{[38] [39]} and DNA sequence (molecular research) data. ^{[40] [41]} All the same, there are sometimes discordances betwixt molecular and morphological investigations; these tin can be categorized every bit ii types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence, ambiguous species) and (2) 1 lineage, multiple morphologies (e.one thousand. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-bike stages). ^[42]

Because the protists as a whole are paraphyletic, new systems ofttimes split upwardly or carelessness the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as divide lines of eukaryotes. The contempo scheme by Adl et al. (2005) ^[34] does not recognize formal ranks (phylum, class, etc.) and instead treats groups every bit clades of phylogenetically related organisms. This is intended to brand the classification more than stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the principal groups of protists, which may be treated as phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper right. ^[43] Many are idea to exist monophyletic, though there is even so uncertainty. For case, the Excavata are probably non monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably merely monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded. ^[44]

In 2015 a Higher Level Classification of all Living Organisms was arrived at by consensus with many authors including Cavalier-Smith. This nomenclature proposes two superkingdoms and seven kingdoms. The superkingdoms are those of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The Prokaryotes include two kingdoms of Leaner and Archaea; the Eukaryotes include v kingdoms of Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The scheme retains xiv taxonomic ranks. Eukaryotic unicellular organisms are referred to equally protists. ^[45]

Metabolism [ edit ]

Nutrition tin vary according to the type of protist. About eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, but the pigments were lost in some groups.^{[ vague ]} Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy, osmotrophy, saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic. Some protists that exercise not accept / lost chloroplasts/mitochondria have entered into endosymbiontic human relationship with other bacteria/algae to replace the missing functionality. For example, Paramecium bursaria and Paulinella have captured a green alga ( Zoochlorella ) and a cyanobacterium respectively that act every bit replacements for chloroplast. Meanwhile, a protist, Mixotricha paradoxa that has lost its mitochondria uses endosymbiontic leaner as mitochondria and ectosymbiontic hair-similar bacteria ( Treponema spirochetes ) for locomotion.

Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding can have place where flagellates find prey. Other protists can engulf bacteria and other food particles, past extending their prison cell membrane around them to form a nutrient vacuole and digesting them internally in a process termed phagocytosis.

Nutritional types in protist metabolism

Nutritional blazon	Source of free energy	Source of carbon	Examples
Photoautotrophs	Sunlight	Organic compounds or carbon fixation	Most algae
Chemoheterotrophs	Organic compounds	Organic compounds	Apicomplexa, Trypanosomes or Amoebae

For most important cellular structures and functions of animate being and plants, information technology can exist plant a heritage among protists. ^[46]

Reproduction [ edit ]

Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually past binary fission.

Some species, for instance Plasmodium falciparum , have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually. ^[47] All the same, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic commutation between unlike strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species. ^[48]

Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than than 1.5 billion years agone. ^[49] The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread among extant eukaryotes, information technology seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could be a primordial and primal feature of eukaryotes. A chief reason for this view was that sex appeared to be defective in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family unit tree. Yet, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had the adequacy for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For example, the mutual intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sexual activity. Even so, G. lamblia was recently found to take a core fix of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely nowadays amongst sexual eukaryotes. ^[50] These results suggested that G. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct testify for meiotic recombination, indicative of sex, was also plant in One thousand. lamblia. ^[51]

The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania have been shown to be capable of a sexual cycle in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes. ^[52]

Trichomonas vaginalis , a parasitic protist, is not known to undergo meiosis, just when Malik et al. ^[53] tested for 29 genes that office in meiosis, they institute 27 to be present, including 8 of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings advise that T. vaginalis may be capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were also present in Thou. lamblia, it appears that nearly of these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of T. vaginalis and Yard. lamblia. These two species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent among eukaryotes, leading Malik et al. ^[53] to suggest that these meiotic genes were probable present in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes.

Based on a phylogenetic assay, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sexual practice was present in the mutual ancestor of all eukaryotes. ^[54]

This view was further supported by a written report of amoebae by Lahr et al. ^[55] Amoeba have generally been regarded as asexual protists. Still, these authors describe evidence that most amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual, and that the bulk of asexual groups likely arose recently and independently. Early researchers (due east.g., Calkins) have interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules costless in the cytoplasm) in amoeboid organisms as sexual reproduction. ^[56]

Protists by and large reproduce asexually under favorable ecology weather condition, but tend to reproduce sexually nether stressful weather, such every bit starvation or heat shock. ^[57] Oxidative stress, which is associated with the product of reactive oxygen species leading to DNA damage, also appears to be an important factor in the consecration of sex in protists. ^[57]

Some unremarkably found Protist pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a broad variety of animals – which act as secondary or intermediate host – but can undergo sexual reproduction just in the primary or definitive host (for example: felids such as domestic cats in this case). ^{[58] [59] [60]}

Ecology [ edit ]

Free-living Protists occupy virtually any environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such equally algae, are photosynthetic and are vital chief producers in ecosystems, peculiarly in the body of water as role of the plankton. Protists make up a big portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial environments. ^[61]

Other protists include pathogenic species, such as the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei , which causes sleeping sickness, and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium , which cause malaria.

Parasitism: office as pathogens [ edit ]

Some protists are significant parasites of animals (due east.g.; five species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium cause malaria in humans and many others crusade like diseases in other vertebrates), plants ^{[62] [63]} (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes tardily blight in potatoes) ^[64] or even of other protists. ^{[65] [66]} Protist pathogens share many metabolic pathways with their eukaryotic hosts. This makes therapeutic target development extremely difficult – a drug that harms a protist parasite is also likely to harm its animal/plant host. A more than thorough agreement of protist biological science may permit these diseases to exist treated more efficiently. For example, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast but essential to carry out important functions other than photosynthesis) present in apicomplexans provides an attractive target for treating diseases acquired past dangerous pathogens such every bit plasmodium.

Recent papers accept proposed the use of viruses to care for infections caused by protozoa. ^{[67] [68]}

Researchers from the Agronomical Inquiry Service are taking advantage of protists every bit pathogens to control red imported burn ant ( Solenopsis invicta ) populations in Argentina. Spore-producing protists such as Kneallhazia solenopsae (recognized as a sister clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom at present) ^[69] can reduce scarlet fire ant populations by 53–100%. ^[70] Researchers have also been able to infect phorid wing parasitoids of the emmet with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that can spread the pathogenic protist betwixt blood-red fire emmet colonies. ^[71]

Fossil record [ edit ]

Many protists have neither hard parts nor resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown. Examples of such groups include the apicomplexans, ^[72] near ciliates, ^[73] some green algae (the Klebsormidiales), ^[74] choanoflagellates, ^[75] oomycetes, ^[76] brown algae, ^[77] xanthous-green algae, ^[78] Excavata (east.g., euglenids). ^[79] Some of these have been institute preserved in amber (fossilized tree resin) or nether unusual conditions (east.one thousand., Paleoleishmania , a kinetoplastid).

Others are relatively common in the fossil record, ^[80] as the diatoms, ^[81] golden algae, ^[82] haptophytes (coccoliths), ^[83] silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates, ^[84] dark-green algae, ^[85] red algae, ^[86] heliozoans, radiolarians, ^[87] foraminiferans, ^[88] ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans). ^[89] Some are even used as paleoecological indicators to reconstruct aboriginal environments.

More than likely eukaryote fossils brainstorm to appear at about i.eight billion years ago, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of likely algal protists. ^[xc] Another possible representative of early on fossil eukaryotes are the Gabonionta.

Meet also [ edit ]

• Development of sexual reproduction
• Marine protists
• Protist locomotion
• Protistology

Footnotes [ edit ]

1. ^ ^{a b} The first eukaryotes were "neither plants, animals, nor fungi", hence as defined, the category protist would include the final eukaryotic common ancestor.
2. ^ Monera eventually became the 2 domains Bacteria and Archaea . ^[5]
3. ^ In the original 4-kingdom model proposed in 1959, Protista included all unicellular microorganisms such as leaner. Herbert Copeland proposed split kingdoms, Mychota for prokaryotes and Protoctista for eukaryotes (including fungi) that were neither plants nor animals. Copeland'southward stardom between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells was eventually critical in Whittaker proposing a final five-kingdom organisation, even though he resisted it for over a decade. ^{[8] [9]}

References [ edit ]

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Bibliography [ edit ]

General [ edit ]

• Haeckel, E. Das Protistenreich . Leipzig, 1878.
• Hausmann, K., North. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
• Margulis, Fifty., J.O. Corliss, One thousand. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
• Margulis, L., Grand.V. Schwartz. Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Globe, 3rd ed. New York: Westward.H. Freeman, 1998.
• Margulis, 50., 50. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
• Margulis, 50., Chiliad.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Academic Printing/Elsevier, 2009.
• Schaechter, Thou. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Printing, 2012.

Physiology, ecology and paleontology [ edit ]

• Foissner, W.; D.50. Hawksworth. Protist Diversity and Geographical Distribution. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
• Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Small Everywhere? Cambridge University Printing, Cambridge, 2011.
• Levandowsky, One thousand. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Cell physiology sourcebook : essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
• Moore, R. C., and other editors. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology . Protista, part B (vol. 1 ^{[ permanent dead link ]} , Charophyta, vol. 2, Chrysomonadida, Coccolithophorida, Charophyta, Diatomacea & Pyrrhophyta), part C (Sarcodina, Importantly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida) and part D ^{[ permanent expressionless link ]} (Chiefly Radiolaria and Tintinnina). Bedrock, Colorado: Geological Society of America; & Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press.

External links [ edit ]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Protista .

• Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
• A java applet for exploring the new higher level nomenclature of eukaryotes
• Plankton Chronicles – Protists – Cells in the Sea – video
• Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica. (2013). Diversity of Life. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/Taxa.htm. Concluding modified: 11/18/xiii.
• Tsukii, Y. (1996). Protist Information Server (database of protist images). Laboratory of Biological science, Hosei University.[one]. Updated: March 22, 2016.

What Are the 4 Major Phyla of Animal Like Protists

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist